The Rise and Fall of the Dinosaurs Read online

  Bone by bone, Thomas has chronicled the metamorphosis of Tyrannosaurus rex. Almost the entire head was reshaped as it went from boy to man, girl to woman. The skull started out long and low, with a stretched-out snout, thin teeth, and shallow depressions for jaw muscles. Throughout the teenage years, it got bigger, deeper, and stronger. The sutures between bones locked more tightly together, the jaw-muscle depressions became much deeper, and the teeth turned into bone-shattering pegs. The juveniles weren’t capable of puncture-pull feeding; that only became possible in adulthood, around the same time that Rex switched from a speedster to a slower ambusher. There were other changes too: the sinuses within the skull expanded, probably to help lighten the ever heavier head, and the little horns on the eyes and cheeks became larger and more prominent, the tiny bumps becoming gaudy display ornaments to attract mates when those teenage hormones kicked in.

  It was quite the transformation. After all of those meals, the decade of exponential growth, the complete refiguring of the skull, the loss of the ability to run fast but the acquisition of puncture-pull biting, the Rex was all man, all woman, and ready to claim its throne.

  AND THERE YOU have it, a glimpse into the life and times of the most famous dinosaur in history. T. rex bit so hard it could crunch through the bones of its prey, it was so bulky that it couldn’t run fast as an adult, it grew so fast as a teenager that it put on five pounds a day for a decade, it had a big brain and sharp senses, it hung around in packs, and it was even covered in feathers. Maybe it’s not the biography you were expecting. And there’s the rub. Everything we have learned about T. rex tells us that it, and dinosaurs more generally, were incredible feats of evolution, well adapted to their environments, the rulers of their time. Far from being failures, they were evolutionary success stories. They were also remarkably similar to animals of today, particularly birds—Rex had feathers, grew rapidly, and even breathed like a bird. Dinosaurs were not alien creatures. No, they were real animals that had to do what all animals do: grow, eat, move, and reproduce. And none of them did it better than T. rex, the one true King.

  7

  Dinosaurs at the Top of Their Game

  Triceratops

  Chapter Title art by Todd Marshall

  AS TERRIFYING AS IT WAS, T. rex was not a global supervillain. Its dominion was North America—western North America, to be more precise. No Asian, European, or South American dinosaurs lived in fear of T. rex. In fact, they never would have met one.

  During the latest Cretaceous—the last throes of dinosaur evolution, about 84 to 66 million years ago, when T. rex and its jumbo-size tyrannosaur cousins topped the food chain—the geographical harmony of Pangea was a distant memory. By then, the supercontinent had long ago fractured into pieces, each chunk drifting apart from the others slowly over the Jurassic and Early to middle part of the Cretaceous, the gaps in between the new shards of land filled by oceans. When T. rex took its crown, just a couple million years before the Age of Dinosaurs ended in a bang, the map was more or less as it is today.

  North of the equator there were two big landmasses: North America and Asia, with essentially their modern shapes. They ever so slightly kissed each other near the North Pole, but otherwise were separated by a wide Pacific Ocean. There was an Atlantic Ocean, too, on the other side of North America, which encircled a series of islands that corresponded to modern-day Europe. Sea level was so high during the latest Cretaceous—the result of a hothouse world where very little, if any, water was locked up in polar ice caps—that most of low-lying Europe was flooded. Only a constellation of random morsels—the higher parts of Europe—poked up from the waves. High sea level also pushed water farther inland, so that warm subtropical seas lapped far onto both North America and Asia. The North American seaway extended all the way from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic. In effect, it bisected the continent into an eastern slice called Appalachia and a western microcontinent called Laramidia, the hunting grounds of T. rex.

  It was a similar situation in the south. The yin-and-yang puzzle pieces of South America and Africa had just recently detached, a narrow corridor of the South Atlantic nestled between. Antarctica sat at the bottom of the world, balanced on the South Pole. Off to its north was Australia, a bit more crescent-shaped than it is today. Fingers of crust kept Antarctica in contact with both Australia and South America, but these were tenuous, liable to be swamped any time sea level crept up slightly. During those high-water stands, just as in the north, seas extended far inland onto the southern continents, drowning much of northern Africa and southern South America. What is now the Sahara would have been waterlogged. However, during those times when the seas receded a little bit, an archipelago provided a route between Africa and Europe—a highway, albeit a fleeting and treacherous one, between north and south.

  A few hundred miles off the east coast of Africa was a triangular wedge, an island continent. This was India, the only large piece of land in the latest Cretaceous that would look out of place to us today. India began its life as a sliver of ancient Gondwana—the big mass of southern lands that separated from the north when Pangea began to split—wedged in between what would become Africa and Antarctica. It severed all ties with its neighbors some time during the early part of the Cretaceous and began a race northward, moving at more than six inches (fifteen centimeters) per year. Most continents, by contrast, drift at a much slower pace, about the speed that our fingernails grow. This brought India to the middle part of the proto–Indian Ocean, a bit south of the Horn of Africa, in the latest Cretaceous. Another 10 million years or so and it would complete its journey, colliding with Asia to form the Himalayas, but by then the dinosaurs were long gone.

  In between these pieces of land were the oceans—a domain dinosaurs were never able to conquer. The warm waters of the Cretaceous, as during the Jurassic and Triassic beforehand, were the hunting grounds of various types of giant reptiles: plesiosaurs with long noodle-shaped necks, pliosaurs with enormous heads and paddlelike flippers, streamlined and finned creatures called ichthyosaurs that looked like reptilian versions of dolphins, and many others. They dined on each other and on fish and sharks (most of which were much smaller than today’s species), which in turn fed on tiny shelled plankton that choked the ocean currents. None of these reptiles were dinosaurs—even though they are often mistaken for dinosaurs in popular books and movies, they were merely distant reptilian cousins. For whatever reason—and we don’t yet know the answer—no dinosaurs were able to do what whales did: start on the land, change their bodies into swimming machines, and make a living in the water.

  They were stuck on the land, one of the few liabilities they were never able to overcome. In the latest Cretaceous, this meant that they had to deal with a disjointed world. The land was divided into different kingdoms, fragments of dry ground separated by those reptile-infested seas, their dinosaurs isolated from each other. And that includes T. rex. The King may have been able to easily subjugate the dinosaurs of Europe or India or South America, but it never got the chance. It was restricted to western North America.

  This was good news for other dinosaurs, especially the plant-eaters, but it also gave other types of meat-eaters the opportunity to seize their own kingdoms, and various groups of carnivores did just that, the story a little bit different on each of the Cretaceous continents. Each landmass had a unique suite of dinosaurs—its own megapredators, second-tier hunters, scavengers, big and small herbivores, and omnivores. Provinciality extended to other species as well: there were distinct types of crocodiles, turtles, lizards, frogs, and fishes on the various parcels of land, and of course, different types of plants too. In this way, isolation bred diversification.

  So it was that the latest Cretaceous—this world of such geographical and ecological complexity, with different ecosystems stranded on different continents—was the heyday of the dinosaurs. It was their time of greatest diversity, the apogee of their success. There were more species than ever before, from pint-size ones to giant
s, eating all kinds of foods, endowed with a spectacular variety of crests, horns, spikes, feathers, claws, and teeth. Dinosaurs at the top of their game, doing as well or better than they had ever done, still in control more than 150 million years after their earliest ancestors were born on Pangea.

  TO FIND THE best fossils of latest Cretaceous dinosaurs—including bones of T. rex itself—you have to go to hell—or rather, the badlands surrounding Hell Creek, a once trickling tributary of the Missouri River that is now a flooded arm of a reservoir in northeastern Montana. It’s a place of stifling humidity and mosquito swarms, with rare breezes and little shade. Just rock bluffs that stretch to the horizon in all directions, radiating heat like a sauna.

  Barnum Brown was one of the first explorers to visit Hell Creek in search of dinosaurs, and it was in the scabby hills a hundred miles or so southeast of the creek where he found the first skeleton of T. rex in 1902. His bosses in New York were overjoyed, and Brown was given a mandate to bring more fossils back to the big city. Over the next few years, decked out in his fur coat with his pickaxe slung over his shoulder, he prospected the bluffs, gullies, and dry streambeds along the Missouri River and farther southeast. The fossils kept coming, and after a while Brown came to understand the geology of the area. All of the bones were buried inside a thick sequence of rocks that formed much of the badlands topography—a layer-cake array of reds, oranges, browns, tans, and blacks, made up of sand and mud deposited by ancient rivers. He called these rocks the Hell Creek Formation.

  The Hell Creek rocks were formed between about 67 and 66 million years ago, by a tangle of rivers that drained the young Rocky Mountains to the west, then meandered across a vast floodplain, occasionally bursting their banks and pooling into lakes and swamps, before emptying eastward into that great seaway that cut North America in two. These were fertile, lush environments, a perfect setting for so many types of dinosaurs to thrive. It was also an environment where sediments were being deposited and turned into rock, with the bones inside them along for the ride. Lots of dinosaurs and lots of sediments—that’s the recipe for a fossil bonanza.

  I took my first trip to Hell in 2005, a century after Brown’s T. rex was unveiled in New York. I was an undergraduate, a month removed from my first-ever dinosaur-hunting expedition, excavating Jurassic sauropods in Wyoming with Paul Sereno. Looking to gain additional fieldwork experience, I drove out to Montana with a crew from the closest thing I could call my local museum, the aforementioned Burpee Museum of Natural History in Rockford, Illinois.

  Rockford isn’t the type of place you’d expect to have a dinosaur museum. For one, not a single dinosaur fossil has ever been found in Illinois—my home state is too flat, too geologically boring, almost barren of rocks formed during the time dinosaurs reigned. Nor have past decades been kind to its manufacturing-based economy. Yet Rockford has one of the finest natural history museums in the Midwest. The staff of the Burpee Museum often refer to themselves as “the little museum that could,” which speaks to the odd twists of fate they’ve had to navigate. For most of its existence, the museum was little more than a fusty collection of stuffed birds, rocks, and Native American arrowheads, poking out of the nooks and lofts of a once-grand nineteenth-century mansion. Then in the 1990s, the museum received a startling donation from a private benefactor, and a new wing was added. Exhibits were needed to fill the expansion, so the administrators hatched a trip to Hell Creek to bring back dinosaurs.

  At that time, the Burpee Museum had only a single paleontology curator on its payroll, a soft-spoken, barrel-chested northern Illinois boy named Mike Henderson, infatuated with the smeared fossils of worms that lived hundreds of millions of years before the dinosaurs. He needed help, so he teamed up with a childhood friend—a boisterous, loudmouthed people person named Scott Williams. Along with comic books and superhero movies, Scott loved dinosaurs as a kid, but he didn’t have the opportunity to pursue paleontology as a career and ended up going into law enforcement. He was still a cop—and he looked the part, with his goatee, stocky build, and thick Chicago accent—when I first met him at the Burpee Museum when I was in high school. A few years later, after leaving the force for a full-time career in science, he became the collections manager at the museum, and today he helps manage one of the world’s largest dinosaur collections, at the Museum of the Rockies in Montana.

  During the summer of 2001, Mike and Scott led an eclectic crew of museum staff, geology students, and amateur volunteers out to the heart of Hell. They set up camp near the tiny town of Ekalaka, Montana, population about three hundred, not too far from the T-shaped junction where Montana meets both Dakotas. Brown had once searched this ground, but Mike and Scott found something that had eluded even the maestro. They happened upon the best, most complete skeleton of a teenage T. rex that had ever been found. It was the keystone fossil that told paleontologists that the King was a gangly, long-snouted, thin-toothed sprinter as a youngster, before it metamorphosed into a truck-size bone-crunching brute as an adult.

  Mike, Scott, and their crew discovered a fossil that immediately made the Burpee Museum a major player in dinosaur research. When the skeleton—which they nicknamed Jane, after a museum donor—went on display a few years later, paleontologists from around the world flocked to anonymous Rockford, Illinois, to see it—as did many hundreds of thousands of kids, families, and tourists. The Burpee Museum now had a superstar to headline its new exhibition hall.

  Mike and Scott kept going back to Hell for months at a time during the next few summers. Eventually they invited me to come along, but only after I earned their trust. I had become friends with Mike and Scott during my frequent visits to the Burpee Museum, which began while I was a high school sophomore. They first knew me as an annoying teenager with a dinosaur obsession, who, tape recorder and autograph Sharpie in hand, religiously attended the Museum’s annual PaleoFest, where notable scientists came to speak about their adventures studying dinosaurs (which, incidentally, is where I first met two of the eminent paleontologists who would later become my academic advisors: Paul Sereno and Mark Norell). I continued to drive up to Rockford throughout college, and once I started formally training to become a paleontologist in Sereno’s lab, Mike and Scott thought I was ready to join them on their annual descent into Hell.

  A thousand miles separate Rockford and Ekalaka. When we arrived, we took up residence at a place called Camp Needmore, a scattering of wooden bunkhouses deep in the cool pine forests that rise above the badlands. That first night I was kept awake by the wail of a synthesizer, coming from one of the cabins next door. It was the bunkhouse occupied by a trio of volunteers who drove out separately from Rockford, all professionals taking a break from the grind of the office. Their ringleader was a short, quirky fellow. His name—Helmuth Redschlag—conjured up images of an imperious Prussian general, but he was from Middle America, and his job was much more sedate: he was an architect. Each night he partied deep into the morning with his friends—feasting on filet mignon and imported Italian cheeses, sipping fruity Belgian beers to the disco trash beat. Still, every morning he was up at six a.m., eager to head back into the furnace of Hell on the trail of dinosaurs.

  “It makes me feel alive. The heat. The sun beaming down, burning you, scarring your neck and your back, desperate for shade and water,” Helmuth said to me in the calm of one morning, before we set out into the inferno. Uh huh, uh huh, I nodded along, unsure of what to make of him.

  A couple of days later, while I was out prospecting with Scott and some of the other student volunteers, we got a frantic call from Helmuth. He was wandering a few miles down the road, enjoying the pain of the sun on his skin, when something caught his eye in a gully: a dark brown bulge sticking out of the dull tan-colored mud rocks. A lot of things caught Helmuth’s eye—he was an architect, after all, and a fine one at that—and his attention to the details of shapes and textures made him a very good fossil hunter. He sensed that this one was special, so he started to dig into the hillside. B
y the time we arrived on the scene, he had exposed a thighbone, several ribs and vertebrae, and part of the skull of a dinosaur. The bones from the head gave away its identity. Many of them were randomly shaped pieces of something flat and platelike, resembling shattered glass, and a few others were sharp, pointy cones: horns. Only one dinosaur in the Hell Creek ecosystem fit the profile: Triceratops, with three horns on its face and a broad, thick, billboard-like frill extending from behind its eyes.

  Triceratops, like its arch-nemesis T. rex, is a dinosaur icon. In films and documentaries, it usually plays the gentle, sympathetic plant-eater, the perfect dramatic foil to the Tyrant King. Sherlock versus Moriarty, Batman versus the Joker, Trike versus Rex. But it’s not all movie magic; no, these two dinosaurs truly would have been rivals 66 million years ago. They lived together along the lakes and rivers of the Hell Creek world, and they were the two most common species there—Triceratops making up some 40 percent of Hell Creek dinosaur fossils, T. rex coming in second at about 25 percent. The King needed immense amounts of flesh to fuel its metabolism; its three-horned comrade was fourteen tons of slow-moving prime steak. You can figure out what happened next. Indeed, Triceratops bones with bite marks matching T. rex attest to their ancient battles, but don’t think for a moment that it was an unfair fight, always destined to go the way of the predator. Triceratops was armed with a set of weapons: its horns, a stout one on the nose and a longer, thinner one above each eye. Like the frill on the back of the head, the horns probably evolved primarily for display—to make Triceratops seem sexy to potential mates and scary to its rivals—but no doubt Triceratops would use them in self-defense when needed.